Advantages and disadvantages of zero tolerance policing. An assistant principal found the leaf in his backpack and initiated disciplinary action. 10 For example, if a drug enforcement crackdown clears many people out of a previously busy drug market, there are likely to be fewer opportunities for such crimes as drug-related robberies and assaults. 11, Crackdowns hold substantial appeal for the public, police, and government officials. These include population changes, stabilisation of drug markets, increased rates of imprisonment and changes to abortion laws (for example, Bowling, 1999; Kelling and Sousa, 2001; Kim and others, 2015; Roeder and others, 2015; Wendel and others, 2016a; b; Donoghue and Levitt, 2001). In addition, the following technique that is often mislabeled as zero tolerance should actually be grouped with focused deterrence: Tip: A Delaware third grader is an excellent example of this disadvantage. Opportunity costs. (1992); Zimmer (1990), Davis and Lurigio (1996); Worden, Bynum, and Frank (1994); Kleiman (1988). ), Modern Policing: Crime, and Justice , Vol. As the term suggests, zero-tolerance policing entails strict enforcement of minor offenses. We hope that this toolkit has made clear that being proactive in preventing crime does not (and should not) simply mean zero tolerance and aggressive policing. 'Zero tolerance' is the label for a form of policing that was introduced quite independently but at just about the same time in New York, under its mayor Rudolph Giuliani, and in Hartle-pool under DCI Ray Mallon. It is marked in the first place In addition to the financial costs crackdowns create for prosecutors, courts, and jails, they create pressure on those operations to adapt to the new workload by forcing other cases and prisoners out of the system.32 Often, that means that offenders are offered lenient sentences in exchange for guilty pleas, which undercuts, to some extent, the crackdown's intended benefits. To some extent, the perception of risk is more important than the actual risk. It reduces corruption and racist treatment because By aggressive it is meant that police make extra efforts to take official action, not that they are hostile or rude to people they contact. Award Finalist], Salt Lake City Police Department, 2001, The Drug crackdowns can also have some negative consequences. Washington , D.C. : Police Executive Research Forum. In Braga, Welsh, and Schnells review of disorder policing interventions (2015), the one aggressive order maintenance intervention producing a strong reduction in crime consisted of disorder crackdowns, along with traditional suppression, specifically on known gang members in two precincts in Detroit (Bynum and Varano, 2003). Directly related to crackdowns on fear-generating behavior are crackdowns on disorder that directly enables lethal violence. Directly focusing on known burglars has proved successful in at least one carefully planned initiative in the United Kingdom.40 There, police sought to identify all known and active burglars in a target area and to take them out of circulation, mainly through arrest. Xie M. (2014). (1975). Most crackdown studies have found that any positive impact they have in reducing crime and disorder tends to disappear (or decay) rather quickly, and occasionally even before the crackdown ends.17> The effect can wear off for various reasons, including the tendency for police implementation to become less rigorous over time and for offenders to adapt to the crackdown.18, Whatever short-term reductions in crime and disorder they might provide, crackdowns do not address any of the physical or social conditions that often contribute to crime and disorder, either in general or at particular locations.19 Broader situational crime prevention and problem-solving approaches are better suited to address these underlying conditions.20. (1974) http://www.policefoundation.org/pdf/kcppe.pdf [PDF], McGarrell, E., Chermak, S. and Weiss, A. Zero tolerance policing is extremely effective at reducing small-scale drug use and dealing by patro Zero tolerance also allows for a sound rehabilitative role. Zero Tolerance and Aggressive Policing (And Why to Avoid It) in Depth In this essay: Alternative 1: Enforcement Against Fear-Generating Behavior Alternative 2: Enforcement Against Violence-Enabling Behavior Alternative 3: Improvements to the EnvironmentFixing Actual Broken Windows Alternative 4: Sanctions for Those Who Engage in Violence Displacement. When a crackdown emphasizes enforcement, it obviously relies on actual sanctions being applied to offenders to enhance the deterrent effect. 447 0 obj Greene JR. (2014). --- (1990). Burns, L., and C. Coumarelos (1993). Follow-up crackdowns to reinforce an initial crackdown typically do not need to be as intense. Other students might feel threatened by this behavior. Crackdowns are designed to apprehend many offenders, some of whom will be serious and/or high-rate. Drug crackdowns raise the nonfinancial costs of dealing and buying: increasing the time it takes dealers and buyers to find one another and make a deal, increasing the risks of getting arrested, and increasing the risks of having drugs confiscated.65 Dealers become less willing to sell to strangers, thus changing an open drug market into a closed one; this can reduce some of the disorder associated with open drug markets. They spread the word that dealers were ripping off buyers. This tendency for short-term impact does not necessarily make crackdowns inadvisable: for some problems and some areas, even short-term relief can justify the effort, particularly if that relief creates new opportunities to implement longer-term responses. It could even be part of a bullying effort, whether the young child realizes it or not. "Gang Suppression Through Saturation Patrol, Aggressive Curfew, and Truancy Enforcement: A Quasi-Experimental Test of the Dallas Anti-Gang Initiative." You should be alert to any spatial displacement and take steps to ensure it does not create a worse problem in a new location. But this is more incidental to crackdowns than it is purposeful: most crackdowns target all offenders, not just high-rate ones. Fourthly ZT focuses on minor crimes, and street crimes, ignoring the more serious crimes committed by elites, which Marxists see as more harmful. 'Evaluating Contemporary Crime Drop(s) in America, New York City, and Many Other Places'. endobj What are the positives and negatives of zero tolerance? "Impact of Community Policing in Four Houston Neighborhoods." 26, Potential for abuse. 3. Many reports relating to crackdowns refer to aggressive police methodsaggressive patrol, aggressive enforcement, and so forth. Novak, K., J. Harman, A. Holsinger, and M. Turner (1999). Do not provide personal information such as your name or email address in the feedback form. 465 0 obj It only supplements the information provided in this guide's main text. Those interested should read the original study reports to better judge the reliability of the findings and conclusions. Washington , D.C. : U.S. Government Printing Office. New York: Manhattan Institute for Policy Research. It's one thing to realize a quick dramatic decrease in some types of offenses, but if that's at the cost of creating great antagonism toward the police on the part of youth and future generations, then police departments are going to have to deal with the consequences of that hostility.25, But loss of public support is not inevitable. Crime Reduction Plan 91G Squad, Phoenix Police Department, 1996, Operation Offender Registration Program, San Diego Police Department, 1995, Sheriff's ), The Modern Gang Reader . For more on the risks of and alternatives to zero tolerance, . The incident ultimately hinged on the fact that the student had a long line of disciplinary problems, although that fact was not communicated to the parents at the time. Justice Quarterly, 12(4): 673-694. Within a few years of Zero Tolerance, however, crime had dropped from between 30 50%. Policing Today (September):34 - 36. Nevertheless, the approach undoubtedly has the potential to work, although in this instance the consolidation served only to prolong the impact of the initial crackdown, rather than offer a sustainable solution. San Diego police were witnessing a full-blown crack epidemic on University Avenue . Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 32, pp 357-375. There are far too many stories of children receiving leniency because they are smart, have parents involved with the district, or have money that can help them to get off the hook. read more about what stops people offending, read the research on police numbers and crime rates, read more about targeted approaches to crime, The effectiveness of visible police patrol. Crack Abatement: Comparison of Drug Control Strategies . (These are a specific type of order enforcement, which is discussed in the guide to problem-oriented policing.) Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management 22(2):171-190. endobj Zero tolerance policies work to create a safe learning environment. Area Cadillac/Corning Neighborhood Project, Los Angeles Police Department, It focuses more on classroom disruption than the needs of the child involved. Area Cadillac/Corning Neighborhood Project, Department of Justice COPS Response Center, Yes, spatial displacement to adjacent precincts, No, but had a positive effect on public perceptions of safety, No, increased citizen satisfaction with police, No, did not reduce robbery or auto theft or have any measurable effect on traffic crashes, High volume of traffic stops in drug market areas; aggressive traffic enforcement; field interviews; street- level drug enforcement; follow-up investigation of arrestees; case- building, Yes, reduced burglary in three out of four districts; reduced robbery in one out of four; reduced auto theft in all four (by 43%, 50%, and 53% in three districts), while the citywide crime rate was climbing, Saturation patrol (four times the normal level, and 30 times the normal level of "slow patrol"), Yes, reduced nighttime, but not daytime, burglary; concluded that the crackdown was not cost-effective, All crimes (specially intended to reduce crimes considered suppressible: burglary; street and commercial robbery; assault; auto theft; thefts from yards, autos, or buildings; DUI; possession of stolen property or weapons; and disorderly conduct), Aggressive traffic enforcement, especially of speeding, signal violations, seat belt violations, DUI, and license and registration violations; from 140% to 430% increase above normal levels, Mixed results: there were significant reductions in Part I crimes (mainly burglary and larceny) in three out of four target areas, but there was less evidence of a significant impact on assaults and Part II offenses, Yes, but the effect was modest; concluded the crackdown was not cost- effective, Subway patrol by Guardian Angels (private patrol force), No, but there was a short-term reduction in citizen fear, Overtime to put 655 additional officers in the seven highest crime beats in the city; high-visibility patrol; hot-spot monitoring; zero tolerance; problem-oriented approaches, Yes, there were significant reductions in UCR Index crimes, No displacement; some diffusion of benefits to adjacent areas, Assault, malicious damage to property, and offensive conduct, Regular but unpredictable visits to licensed premises to check for breaches of licensing laws, Raids; arrests of burglary suspects; seizure of stolen property, West Yorkshire, England (Boggart Hill area), Targeted and intensive enforcement against known burglars, followed by repeat victimization reduction efforts (target hardening, educating elderly potential victims of burglary by deception) and youth outreach programs, Yes, there was a significant reduction in burglary and repeat victimization, No evidence of spatial displacement; some evidence of diffusion of benefits to other types of crime (auto theft), Intense intermittent patrol at known hot spots (100% increase in patrol time at hot spots), Yes, there was a modest effect (25% less disorder at hot spots), Identification and analysis of drug hot spots; engagement of business owners and citizens in crime control efforts; increased pressure on open-air markets (through drug enforcement, code enforcement, license regulation), maintained by patrol, Yes, there were consistent and strong impacts in reducing disorder-related emergency calls for service, but there was no impact on violent or property offenses, No evidence of displacement; some evidence of diffusion of benefits to adjacent areas, Enforcement of truancy and curfew laws; high- visibility patrol, with lots of stops and frisks by six to eight officers in areas where gangs hung out, Yes, there were significant reductions in gang violence, Two alternative interventions: 1) increased traffic enforcement on major arteries, with lots of stops of limited duration (general deterrence strategy); 2) traffic stops of suspected gang members and drug dealers, of longer duration, with more investigation and vehicle searches, Yes, the second intervention tactic resulted in significant reductions in gun-related crimes, aggravated assault, and homicide; there were no similar reductions resulting from the first intervention tactic, Little evidence of displacement; no evidence of geographic diffusion of benefits; modest evidence of residual deterrence effects 90 days after intervention, No, evidence of high level of public support both before and after intervention, Intensive enforcement of gun- carrying laws (Terry stops, searches incident to arrest, car stops and searches, plain-view searches,); door-to-door solicitation of tips; police training to interpret gun-carrying cues; field interviews in known gun crime hot spots, Yes, there was a 49% reduction in gun crimes in the target area during the intervention period, compared with the prior 29-week period; there were declines in both drive-by shootings and homicides; there was no apparent effect on total calls for service, other violence calls, property offenses, or disorder; the community became less fearful of crime and more satisfied with the neighborhood, Yes, modest spatial displacement; some evidence of diffusion of benefits to two adjoining beats, Extra dedicated police patrols on high-crime days of week and times of day for 14 weeks; traffic and pedestrian stops and searches; targeting of hot spots and times based on crime analysis, Yes, reduced shots fired by 34% and hospital-treated assault gunshot injuries by 71%, No evidence of temporal or spatial displacement; residual deterrence effects lasted about two weeks, No, no reported citizen complaints against police, Locating, cutting down, and burning marijuana plants; asset seizure and forfeiture; drug enforcement, No (but the methodology limited the findings), Public disorder (street cruising, loud music, and public drinking), Liquor license agents issued citations for open containers and other alcohol violations; local police parked police cars at intersections to monitor cruising; lasted for one month in 10-by-12- block area; no media publicity, Extra police patrols put on subways from 8 PM to 4 AM ; nearly every station and train had a uniformed officer on duty; total transit system police force increased by 250%, Yes, minor offenses and felonies declined significantly due to increased patrol, but at substantial extra cost (about $35,000 per felony crime prevented); there was some question as to whether police reporting procedures accounted for some of the claimed reduction, No displacement; residual deterrence effects for eight months, Robbery, burglary, grand theft, petty theft, auto theft, assault/ battery, sex crimes, and malicious mischief/ disturbances, Yes (there was some evidence that burglary, petty theft, and malicious mischief/disturbances are the most suppressible), Stiffer sanctions for speeding convictions: 30-day license suspensions for first offense, 60 for second, indefinite for third, Not definitive; the overall conclusion was that the crackdown was a substantial enforcement effort, but some of its effects were mitigated in practice, Speeding and other traffic problems, crime, and disorder and blight, Saturation patrol by about 30 officers/agents from various agencies; about 10 times the normal level of police activity in the area; traffic unit focused on traffic problems; alcohol agents worked bars; sheriff's deputies supervised inmates doing community service; traffic arrests increased tenfold; police made highly visible arrests in well-traveled parking lot at major intersection, Yes, there was some evidence of a modest effect on reported crime; unable to measure the effect on traffic crashes (weak evaluation), Regular patrol supplemented by specialized units (10 times the normal level); field interviews; citations; surveillance; arrest of street drug dealers and buyers; high-visibility presence (including setting up a mobile police command post); code enforcement; cleanup; public works repairs; trimming of foliage, Yes, total reported Part I offenses and violent crime declined significantly (by 92%) during the crackdown period and rates were unchanged in the comparison area; Part I property crimes and calls for service declined, but not significantly, No spatial displacement of crimes, but significant displacement of calls for service to adjacent areas; some evidence of diffusion of benefits to adjacent areas; residual deterrence effects lasted about six months, Buy-busts and high police visibility in hot spots with high mobility; vehicle seizures and confiscations; initial crackdown operation never lasted longer than 90 days in an area, but maintenance crackdowns occurred as necessary; initiative claimed to incorporate community involvement and interagency collaboration to address drug market conditions, but there is little evidence this occurred, There was a limited impact; there was an immediate benefit, but conditions returned to normal soon after the TNTs left; there were no measurable effects on public perceptions of crime, quality of life, or police-community relations; there was some increase in fear because drug dealing moved indoors to apartment hallways; there were some positive effects in making drug markets less visible in the target blocks, Yes, some displacement to indoor locations, No, some evidence community was largely unaware of crackdown in their neighbor-hood; community leaders generally supportive of crackdown, Operation Pressure Point (two smaller Pressure Point operations conducted in subsequent years), 240 uniformed officers on foot patrol to disperse crowds; increased arrests; field interviews; warnings and parking tickets; searches; mounted park patrols; canine units to clear buildings; surveillance and buy-busts; anonymous tip lines; raids on dealing locations; asset forfeiture; increased likelihood of conviction and severity of sentences; custodial arrests made instead of citing and releasing; additional responses to address environmental conditions, Yes, the search time for drugs increased; there was a reduction in heroin-related street activity; there were reductions in selected crime rates: burglary (37%), robbery (47%), grand larceny (32%), and homicide (62%); the neighborhood was revitalized; there was an increased demand for drug treatment, Mixed evidence: one study reported no spatial displacement, another reported displacement to other areas in and around city; some evidence of diffusion of benefits to adjacent areas, Observation by four 10-officer teams; arrests for drug dealing, public drinking, etc. Some of whom will be serious and/or high-rate Curfew, and Truancy enforcement: a Test! 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